MetEd: Meteorology Education and Training. Operated by the COMET Program

Description:
Aimed at those who do not have formal training in hydrology, this course is designed to address the needs of non-hydrologists who work with hydrologic data, particularly in flood forecasting. The course is intended to provide an understanding of the complex interactions between the waters of the land and atmosphere and will prepare the student for further study in this area.

This course consists of an orientation, eight foundation topics and two case study modules. The orientation provides an overview of all the components of the course. The introductory foundation topic provides a basic background on fundamental concepts in the hydrologic sciences. Other foundation topics focus on specific areas of the hydrologic sciences, covering terminology and assumptions as well as critical processes and considerations for hydrologic forecasters. Case study modules integrate foundation material into realistic forecast situations.

Course certification requires completion of the seven core topics which takes about eight to ten hours.

Special interest foundation topics address hydrologic processes that involve snow and ice, and may also be considered required topics for many regions even though they are not core topics. Related topics are not specifically part of this course but provide important material related to hydrologic forecasting.

Estimated time to complete: 10 - 12 h

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Description:
This distance learning course has been created primarily for broadcast meteorologists seeking to satisfy their requirements for the Certified Broadcast Meteorologist Program. However, it will be useful for anyone interesting in broadening their understanding of the hydrologic environment, including basic hydrologic processes, water quality, flooding and societal responses, precipitation and its measurement, and drought. Completing the entire course will take approximately 10 to 12 hours.

Estimated time to complete: 10-12 h

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Description:
This presentation by Dr. Eve Gruntfest raises important issues of how floods and other disasters, including land-falling hurricanes and their related warnings, affect public attitudes and actions. Awareness of these social science considerations is important for persons responsible for public weather warnings as well as other types of public interaction.

Estimated time to complete: 30 min

Includes audio: yes

Required plug-ins:   Flash RealPlayer Java Adobe® Reader®
 * Plug-in information

Last published on: 2001-03-26

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Description:
The “Introduction to Ensemble Streamflow Prediction” module provides basic information on probabilistic streamflow forecasting. In this webcast, Dr. Richard Koehler, the National Hydrologic Sciences Training Coordinator for NOAA's NWS, presents information about the types of organizations that might use probabilistic streamflow forecasts as well as foundation concepts and background for ESP methods. The module begins with a brief review of hydrologic models including deterministic, stochastic, and scenario-based approaches. It then provides an overview of time-series approaches including a summary of traditional techniques such as flood frequency, flood analysis, statistical analysis, and trend analysis. Finally, the module presents the basics of ESP techniques including an explanation of its strengths, weaknesses, and appropriate application. The module also provides guidance on how to interpret ensemble forecast products.

Objectives:
Describe terminology and definitions for Ensemble Streamflow Prediction, or ESP:
- Use standard language to describe ESP.
- Explain what time series, realizations, and ensembles represent.
- Describe basic processes using output from scenario-based deterministic models and traditional streamflow analysis methods.

Describe methods and techniques used in ESP:
- Describe current modeling methods and tools used in trace plots.
- Describe product output from ESP.
- Describe use of verification of ESP products.

Estimated time to complete: 60 min

Includes audio: yes

Required plug-ins:   Flash RealPlayer Java Adobe® Reader®
 * Plug-in information

Last published on: 2007-01-30

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Description:
Hazardous weather affects us all. To help local emergency managers cope with weather hazards they may face, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) National Weather Service (NWS) offer a course titled Hazardous Weather and Flooding Preparedness. However, many people who make weather-related decisions are unable to attend this 2-3 day course.

The purpose of this Web-based course, Anticipating Hazardous Weather and Community Risk, is to provide background on weather and weather hazards for emergency managers and other decision makers. This course is intended to complement on-site courses offered by FEMA and NWS, so that they can focus on local hazards and community risk factors.

This course covers:

• Weather: How and why it forms
• Hazardous weather: Fact sheets on different phenomena
• Forecasting weather: The forecast process and products issued by the NWS
• Warning Partnership: How the NWS and emergency managers generate and communicate warnings
• Desktop Exercise: An opportunity to apply what you have learned in a flash flood scenario

FEMA Independent Study credit is available for those who complete the course and pass the exam. The subject matter experts for Anticipating Hazardous Weather and Community Risk are Randall C. Duncan, CEM - Sedgwick County (KS) Emergency Management, Bob Glancy - NWS, Bob Goldhammer - Polk County (IA) Emergency Management, Curt Nellis - County of Shenandoah (VA) Department of Fire and Rescue, John Ogren - NWS, and Bruce Sterling - Portsmouth (VA) Emergency Management.

Objectives:
• Explain basic processes that cause and/or signal hazardous weather
• List the main weather hazards and the factors that determine community risk
• Describe the basic weather forecasting process and its limitations
• Discuss various techniques for communicating information about weather hazards
• Distinguish which NWS forecast products are appropriate in various situations
• Analyze various source of information about a weather hazard and formulate a plan for dealing with a potential disaster

Estimated time to complete: 4-5 h

Includes audio: yes

Required plug-ins:   Flash RealPlayer Java Adobe® Reader®
 * Plug-in information

Last published on: 2001-03-08

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Description:
This brief presentation provides an overview of the COMET Basic Hydrologic Sciences course including: goal and target audiences, structure of the course and adapting it to your needs, and a brief description of course components.

Objectives:
1. Describe goal and target audiences of the COMET Basic Hydrologic Sciences course.

2. Be familiar with the structure of the Basic Hydrologic Sciences course and how to adapt it to your needs.

3. Briefly describe the course components of the Basic Hydrologic Sciences course.

Estimated time to complete: 15 min

Includes audio: yes

Required plug-ins:   Flash RealPlayer Java Adobe® Reader®
 * Plug-in information

Last published on: 2007-10-01

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Description:
This is the first module of a two-part series offering an introduction to the science explaining catastrophic dam failure and flood-wave prediction methods associated with these events. Through use of rich illustrations, animations, and interactions, this module explains key terminology and concepts including dam types and purposes, failure statistics, the general dam failure process, open channel hydraulics, critical flow, Manning's equation, and conveyance. The information covered in this two module series will provide a scientific foundation for advanced course work needed to run dam break simulations and to conduct hydraulic modeling as a part of dynamic wave forecasting.

Objectives:
After completing this module you should be able to:
* Define dam-related terminology
* Identify dam types and purposes
* Be familiar with dam failure modes and statistics
* Comprehend the basic principles of open channel hydraulics
* Recognize subcritical, critical, and supercritical flow conditions
* Understand the elements of Manning’s equation
* Be familiar with the concept of conveyance

Estimated time to complete: 45 min

Includes audio: yes

Required plug-ins:   Flash RealPlayer Java Adobe® Reader®
 * Plug-in information

Last published on: 2008-03-19

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Description:
This second module in the two-part series expands on the science explaining catastrophic dam failure and flood-wave prediction methods associated with these events. Through the use of rich illustrations and interactions, this module introduces the St. Venant equations for dynamic wave flow, and flood wave characteristics. It also explains the general dam failure modeling process along with advantages and limitations of dam failure models including model stability, accuracy, and sensitivity issues. Finally, it also provides an overview of the Teton River dam failure, one of the most famous hydrologic events in U.S. history. The two modules that comprise this series are designed to be taken consecutively and together provide a fundamental understanding of this complex hydrologic topic.

Objectives:
After completing this module you should be able to:

* Describe basic features of the dam failure modeling process
* Recognize terms within the St. Venant equation
* Describe flood wave characteristics
* Describe model stability, accuracy, and sensitivity issues
* Assess advantages and limitations of three dam failure models
* Describe issues surrounding input and output of hydraulic models, including input data and data sources, and use of modeling scenarios
* Compare features of hydraulic versus empirical models
* Describe key issues involved in the Teton River dam failure

Estimated time to complete: 1 h

Includes audio: yes

Required plug-ins:   Flash RealPlayer Java Adobe® Reader®
 * Plug-in information

Last published on: 2008-08-25

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Description:
Distributed Hydrologic Models for Flow Forecasts – Part 1 provides a basic description of distributed hydrologic models and how they work. This module is the first in a two-part series focused on the science of distributed models and their applicability in different situations. Presented by Dr. Dennis Johnson, the module begins with a review of hydrologic models, and then examines the differences between lumped and distributed models. It explains how lumped models may be distributed by subdividing the basin and suggests when distributed hydrologic models are most appropriate. Other topics covered include the advantages of physically-based versus conceptual approaches and some strengths and challenges associated with distributed modeling.

Objectives:
Describe distributed hydrologic models (DHMs) and how they work
• Describe how lumped models may be distributed by subdividing the basin. (i.e. grids, sub-basins, and flow planes)
• Explain when DHMs are most appropriate
• Explain differences between lumped and distributed models:
− DHMs tend to rely on physically-based approaches
− Lumped models rely on conceptual approaches
• Describe some of the challenges associated with DHMs

Estimated time to complete: .50 - .75 h

Includes audio: yes

Required plug-ins:   Flash RealPlayer Java Adobe® Reader®
 * Plug-in information

Last published on: 2009-07-28

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Description:
This module takes the learner through seven case studies of flash flood events that occurred in the conterminous U.S. between 2003 and 2006. The cases covered include:

* 30-31 August 2003: Chase & Lyon Counties, KS
* 16-17 September 2004: Macon County, NC
* 31 July 2006: Santa Catalina Mountains near Tucson, AZ
* 25 December 2003: Fire burn area near San Bernardino, CA
* 30 August 2004: Urban flash flood in Richmond, VA
* 19-20 August 2003: Urban flash flood in Las Vegas, NV
* 9 October 2005: Cheshire County, NH

This module assists the learner in applying the concepts covered in the foundation topics of the Basic Hydrologic Sciences course. Some of the specific topics pertinent to these cases are the physical characteristics that make a basin prone to flash floods, basin response to precipitation, flash flood guidance (FFG), the relationship between wildfire and flash floods, and the relationship between urban development and flash floods. Related topics brought out in the cases include radar quantitative precipitation estimation (QPE), the National Weather Service Flash Flood Monitoring and Prediction (NWS FFMP) products, debris flows, impounded water, and interagency communications. The core foundation topics are recommended prerequisite materials since this module assumes some pre-existing knowledge of hydrologic principles. In particular, the Runoff Processes and Flash Flood Processes modules contain material directly related to these cases.

Objectives:
1. Understand the hydrologic response to intense rainfall that leads to rapid runoff and flash floods.

2. Recognize the utility and limitations in NWS flash flood forecasting tools (FFMP, FFG, Radar QPE).

3. Understand that flash flood prone basins can be very small.

4. Identify the LEC (Low Echo Centroid) storm signature and realize its implications on rainfall production.

5. Understand the utility and limitations of different Z-R relationships.

6. Recognize the information provided by FFMP's (Flash Flood Monitoring and Prediction) upstream/downstream tool.

7. Recall how and why FFMP basin rainfall can mask radar problems such as terrain blocking.

8. Think about how one may use other data in areas with terrain blocking of the radar beam.

9. Understand the impact that fire may have on basin hydrology.

10. Recall how debris flows can occur with flash floods.

11. Understand how changing the FFG values may be appropriate in some situations.

12. Recognize the important information provided by FFMP's difference and ratio fields.

13. Be aware of important collaborative efforts between the NWS and other agencies, such as the USGS.

14. Understand the dramatic impact that urban and suburban development can have on basin response.

15. Understand how and why FFG may need to be altered in urbanized areas.

16. Anticipate the very short time lag between peak rainfall and peak flooding in urbanized areas.

17. Recognize that flash flooding may occur downstream of basins that receive the greatest rainfall.

18. Recognize the potential of flash flooding from the sudden release of water impounded by human engineered structures.

19. Recognize the importance of interagency communication prior to and during flash flood events, especially those that involve structural failures.

Estimated time to complete: 1 h

Includes audio: yes

Required plug-ins:   Flash RealPlayer Java Adobe® Reader®
 * Plug-in information

Last published on: 2007-06-26

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Description:
According to NOAA’s National Weather Service, a flash flood is a life-threatening flood that begins within 6 hours--and often within 3 hours--of a causative event. That causative event can be intense rainfall, the failure of a dam, levee, or other structure that is impounding water, or the sudden rise of water level associated with river ice jams.
The “Flash Flood Processes” module offers an introduction to the distinguishing features of flash floods, the underlying hydrologic influences and the use of flash flood guidance (FFG) products. Through use of rich illustrations, animations, and interactions, this module explains the differences between flash floods and general floods and examines the hydrologic processes that impact flash flooding risk. In addition, it provides an introduction to the use of flash flood guidance (FFG) products including derivation from ThreshR and rainfall-runoff curves as well as current strengths and limitations.

Objectives:
Define a flash flood:
• Distinguish a flash flood from a general flood
• Identify the different physical processes leading to flash floods
• Recognize the connection between precipitation intensity and runoff characteristics associated with flash floods

Explain hydrologic influences on flash floods:
• Apply information about the runoff processes to the flash flood problem
• Explain why certain soil textures and soil profiles may result in greater flash flood risks
• Which physical characteristics make a basin more prone to flash flooding
• How quickly and frequently flash floods can occur in urban environments
• How fires and deforestation impact the flash flood risk

Understand key issues underlying the use of flash flood guidance (FFG) products:
• The definition of flash flood guidance
• How threshold runoff (ThreshR) and rainfall-runoff curves are used to derive flash flood guidance
• How flash flood guidance is generated for different spatial entities (headwater, county, gridded) and time durations
• Recognize when and how limitations can impact forecasts

Estimated time to complete: 1 h

Includes audio: yes

Required plug-ins:   Flash RealPlayer Java Adobe® Reader®
 * Plug-in information

Last published on: 2006-11-08

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Description:
The Flood Frequency Analysis module offers an introduction to the use of flood frequency analysis for flood prediction and planning. Through use of rich illustrations, animations, and interactions, this module explains the basic concepts, underlying issues, and methods for analyzing flood data. Common concepts such as the 100-year flood and return periods as well as issues affecting the statistical representation of floods are discussed. Common flood data analysis methods as well as an overview of design events are also covered. As a foundation topic for the Basic Hydrologic Science course, this module may be taken on its own, but it will also be available as a supporting topic providing factual scientific information to support students in completion of the case-based forecasting modules.

Objectives:

1. Explain key concepts in flood frequency analysis
• Define the meaning of return periods (i.e., the 100-year flood)
• Explain the exceedance probability and its relationship to return period
• Understand the two primary applications of flood frequency analyses


2. Understand key issues impacting the statistical representation of floods
• Explain how the period of record impacts flood frequency guidance
• Calculate the probability of occurrence or non-occurrence for a given flood magnitude over a specified duration
• Understand how basin changes may impact the behavior and frequency of floods, thus reducing the length of the period of record


3. Apply common methods for analyzing flood data
• Explain the basic concepts underlying both annual and partial duration time series
• Conduct a frequency analysis given peak flow data for a river


4. Explain purpose and application of design events
• Identify the reason for using design events
• Understand the usefulness of design events and their limitations and constraints
• Explain the concept of probable maximum event
• Understand the concept of standard project floods

Estimated time to complete: 1-2 h

Includes audio: yes

Required plug-ins:   Flash RealPlayer Java Adobe® Reader®
 * Plug-in information

Last published on: 2006-10-10

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Description:
In this webcast, Diane Cooper, with the Southern Region Headquarters of NOAA’s National Weather Service, provides a basic scientific description of the physical processes, mathematical equations, and data issues with respect to distributed hydrologic models. Ms. Cooper first explains the background of hydrologic modeling and how that influences the current state-of-the-art for distributed hydrologic modeling. She then describes the physical process that distributed hydrologic models are attempting to capture and covers a few basic mathematical equations related to these models. She also identifies modeling challenges related to the complexity, calibration, and large data requirements, and gives an overview of the results to date of distributed hydrologic models used at the NWS. The target audience for this module is NWS forecasters who have little or no training in hydrology but can benefit from knowing how distributed hydrologic models work.

Objectives:
* Explain the attributes of current operational lumped models
* Describe the basic attributes of and reasons for using a distributed model
* Describe the implementation process of Distributed Hydrologic Modeling System (DHMS) in the National Weather Service
* Describe preliminary results of Distributed Hydrologic Modeling
* Explain sample Distributed Hydrologic Modeling (DHM) graphical output & other potential products
* Describe expected future development of Distributed Hydrologic Modeling within the NWS

Estimated time to complete: 1 hr

Includes audio: yes

Required plug-ins:   Flash RealPlayer Java Adobe® Reader®
 * Plug-in information

Last published on: 2008-08-04

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Description:
This module offers a comprehensive description of a set of common verification measures for hydrologic forecasts, both deterministic and probabilistic. Through use of rich illustrations, animations, and interactions, this module explains how these verification measures can provide valuable information to users with varying needs. In addition to providing a measure of how well a forecast matches observations, verification measures can be used to help forecasters and users learn about the strengths and weaknesses of a forecast.

Objectives:
• Explain key reasons for performing hydrologic verification and explain important concepts and terminology.
o Define key motivations and purposes of performing forecast verification.
o Explain the need for multiple measures, and why the concept of a “good” forecast is problematic.
o Define and explain the concepts of deterministic and probabilistic forecasts.
o Recognize the seven topics for hydrologic verification and their associated verification measures as created by the NWS Verification Systems Requirements Team.
• Describe key concepts related to the distribution properties of forecasts and observations.
o Define and apply concepts of mean, variance, and standard deviation.
o Describe the purpose of Cumulative Distribution Functions and Probability Density Functions and interpret them.
o Describe the use of the Interquartile Range (IQR) and explain its appropriateness for hydrologic forecast verification.
o Describe the application of a rank histogram to provide useful information about ensemble forecasts.
• Describe key concepts related to measures of forecast confidence.
o Describe how sample size relates to forecast confidence.
o Explain information provided by the confidence interval.
o Define the relationship between confidence level and confidence interval.
o Describe how the confidence interval might be used for statistics.
• Describe key concepts related to correlation measures for forecasts and observations.
o Define correlation.
o Interpret scatter plots to obtain information on correlation.
o Explain use of correlation coefficients.
• Describe key concepts related to categorical forecasts.
o Explain how categorical forecast verification can be applied to either deterministic or probabilistic forecasts.
o Construct and interpret a simple contingency table.
o Describe the meaning of verification statistics that are computed from a contingency table.
o Describe how more complex contingency tables can be used to compute statistics for forecasts associated with more than two categories.
o Explain under what circumstances one would use a Brier Score versus the Ranked Probability Score.
o Explain application of a Brier Score.
o Describe purpose of a Ranked Probability Score.
o Interpret the plot of a Ranked Probability Score.
o Describe key concepts related to error statistics
o Describe use of the Continuous Ranked Probability Score (CRPS).
o Describe the appropriate uses for Mean Absolute Error (MAE), Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) and Mean Error (ME).
o Define forecast bias and explain how it is measured.
• Describe key concepts related to forecast skill and how it provides additional information over error statistics
o Describe the general formulation of a skill score.
o Demonstrate the computation of skill scores associated with Root Mean Squared Error, Brier Score, and Ranked Probability Score.
• Describe key concepts related to conditional verification measures.
o Explain the difference between forecast reliability and forecast discrimination.
o Describe how reliability measures and diagrams can help with verifying conditional forecasts.
o Explain what reliability diagrams show.
o Define forecast sharpness.
o Explain what an attributes diagram shows.
o Interpret a discrimination diagram.
o Interpret a Relative Operating Characteristic (ROC) diagram.

Estimated time to complete: 2h

Includes audio: yes

Required plug-ins:   Flash RealPlayer Java Adobe® Reader®
 * Plug-in information

Last published on: 2008-06-30

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Description:
This module provides an introduction to polar-orbiting-satellite-based microwave remote sensing products that depict moisture and precipitation in the atmosphere. The module begins with definitions and descriptions of total precipitable water and cloud liquid water products, contrasting each with more familiar infrared water vapor and window channel products. This is followed by an overview of microwave precipitation estimation and a discussion of how polar-satellite products compare with those from geostationary satellites and ground-based radar. A series of case examples highlights potential weather forecasting applications for total precipitable water and precipitation products. The module also includes an introduction to the Global Precipitation Monitoring Mission to which future NPOESS satellites will be an important contributor. This module takes about 75 minutes to complete.

Objectives:
After completing this module, learners will be able to:
• State the definition of total precipitable water
• State the definition of cloud liquid water
• Describe the difference between window regions and absorption regions of the electromagnetic spectrum
• Describe how precipitation rates are derived over land and ocean
• Describe the goals of the Global Precipitation Monitoring Program
• Interpret total precipitable water, cloud liquid water, and precipitation products presented in case examples

Estimated time to complete: 75 min

Includes audio: yes

Required plug-ins:   Flash RealPlayer Java Adobe® Reader®
 * Plug-in information

Last published on: 2006-10-06

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Description:
The COMET Program and the Integrated Program Office are pleased to announce the publication of The Operational Tropical Rainfall Potential (TRaP) module. This module, developed by Sheldon Kusselson (Satellite Analysis Branch, NESDIS), traces the development of the present TRaP product and shows numerous examples from recent hurricane seasons comparing model precipitation forecast amounts, TRaP estimated rainfall amounts, and observed rainfall. Guidelines for using the TRaP product and future improvements are presented at the conclusion of the module.

Objectives:
• State the basis of the TRaP technique, its formulation, and inputs
• State the assumptions and the limitations of the technique
• Find and access TRaP products on the Internet
• Interpret TRaP imagery for use in precipitation estimation

Estimated time to complete: 1 h

Includes audio: yes

Required plug-ins:   Flash RealPlayer Java Adobe® Reader®
 * Plug-in information

Last published on: 2004-04-19

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Description:
This is part one of a two-module series on estimation of observed precipitation. Through use of rich illustrations, animations, and interactions, this module provides an overview of the science of precipitation estimation using various measuring platforms. First, we define quantitative precipitation estimation (QPE) and examine technologies for remote sensing of QPE, including radar and satellite and the strengths and limitations of each. That is followed by an examination of the use of rain gauges for precipitation estimation and important issues to consider with rain gauge measurement. Finally we provide an introduction to the strengths and limitations of using precipitation climatology for QPE including PRISM.

Objectives:
1. Define quantitative precipitation estimation (QPE).
2. List the tools used to measure precipitation.
3. Explain a drop size distribution (DSD).
4. Explain a Z-R relationship and its limitations in radar-derived QPE.
5. Explain how the radar’s ability to estimate snow QPE may differ from rain QPE.
6. Understand the basics of radar-derived precipitation from dual-polarized radar.
7. Illustrate what is meant by inconsistency in radar sampling and coverage.
8. Be able to use radar climatology guidance.
9. Describe the uses and limitations of satellite QPE.
10. List some of the limitations of rain gauge measurements.
11. Explain how wind, exposure, and turbulence can influence gauge catch for rain.
12. Explain how the gauge performance for snow may differ from rain.
13. Describe other ways to obtain snow water equivalent.
14. Describe the general strengths and limitations of measurement from automated gauges.
15. Explain how the strengths and limitations of manual gauge reports may differ from those of automated gauges.
16. Describe how precipitation climatology may enhance QPE.
17. Explain some key limitations of precipitation climatology.
18. Describe weather situations that would likely result in useful estimates from each of the three measurement tools: radar, satellite, and rain gauges.

Estimated time to complete: .75 - 1 h

Includes audio: yes

Required plug-ins:   Flash RealPlayer Java Adobe® Reader®
 * Plug-in information

Last published on: 2009-06-03

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Description:
In this module, Wes Junker, retired Senior Branch Forecaster at NCEP/HPC provides an introduction to Quantitative Precipitation Forecasting, as well as two presentations targeted at QPF issues for the conterminous U.S. (1) east of the Rockies and (2) in and west of the Rockies.

Objectives:
Introduction

1. Recall the three main factors to use when composing a QPF.
2. Explain which meteorological factors affect the quantitative part of QPF.
3. Identify meteorological factors that affect precipitation intensity.
4. Apply pattern recognition skills for anticipating precipitation.
5. Anticipate the influences to QPF from both synoptic and mesoscale processes.
6. Use soundings and the associated instability measures in QPFs.
7. Explain the mechanisms of cell movement and propagation.
8. Identify important impacts on QPF from propagation characteristics.
9. Anticipate how jet dynamics may influence precipitation amount and distribution.
10. Understand some of the unique aspects of tropical systems when composing QPF.

East and West of the Rockies

1. Understand the meteorological processes that occur with the Maddox type events (synoptic, frontal, mesohigh, western types).
2. Recall the climatology of heavy rainfall events for your area.
3. Explain how theta-e is used in forecasting heavy precipitation.
4. Anticipate how terrain impacts heavy precipitation events.
5. Recall the general differences between warm- and cool-season QPF.

Estimated time to complete: 120 min

Includes audio: yes

Required plug-ins:   Flash RealPlayer Java Adobe® Reader®
 * Plug-in information

Last published on: 2007-11-01

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Description:
It is the first streaming video Webcast released by the COMET Program. This interactive and entertaining presentation serves as a helpful reminder of the problems that can plague rain gauge performance including specifics regarding the widely used ASOS rain gauge. The material is suitable for anyone who deploys gauges or routinely uses precipitation gauge data.


A version of this Webcast that can be installed on your computer for local playback is also provided.

Estimated time to complete: 40 min

Includes audio: yes

Required plug-ins:   Flash RealPlayer Java Adobe® Reader®
 * Plug-in information

Last published on: 2001-02-05

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Description:
This module takes the learner through the considerations for the river forecasting decisions associated with the remnants of Hurricane Ivan on 17-19 September, 2004 for the Susquehanna River system in Pennsylvania and New York. The module assists the learner with applying the concepts covered in the foundation topics of the Basic Hydrologic Sciences course. Some of the specific topics pertinent to this case are soil conditions, the impact of QPF on runoff, runoff models, runoff processes, routed flow and stage-discharge relationships. Observations of upstream conditions and comparisons to historic crests are also examined to assist with operational flood forecast decisions. The core foundation topics are recommended as a prerequisite since this module assumes some pre-existing knowledge of hydrologic principles.

Objectives:
1. Describe hydrologic conditions in the Susquehanna River basin preceding the events associated with the remnants of Hurricane Ivan in the Susquehanna River Basin on the 17-19 September 2004.

a. Describe the local geography and its impact on storm runoff
b. Use climatology as a reference for potential storm impacts
c. Describe soil texture, soil profile, and ground cover conditions for the region
d. Analyze antecedent soil moisture levels for the area

2. Analyze the observed and forecast rainfall, current factors influencing runoff, and the initial river forecasts for the Susquehanna River preceding this event.

a. Analyze rainfall and soil information and anticipate the impact on runoff
b. Interpret runoff information from river models
c. Anticipate how errors in the QPF may impact the magnitude of runoff

3. Apply knowledge of runoff processes and river modeling to observed and historic streamflows to develop a forecast for the Susquehanna River at Wilkes-Barre for this event.

a. Analyze and anticipate dominant runoff mechanisms during a developing flood event
b. Examine the relative contributions from different components of the forecast hydrograph
c. Examine how changes in precipitation can influence the expected crest
d. Analyze how precipitation forecast errors impact runoff forecast errors
e. Anticipate the impact of runoff that is routed from upstream areas
f. Use observations and historic information to assess the likelihood of the predicted extreme event
g. Interpret and adjust guidance from river forecasting models
h. Issue a river forecast despite uncertainties
i. Appreciate how forecaster experience can play a very important role in the forecast process.

4. Assess lessons learned during the forecast process leading up to and during this flood event.

a. Validate how the river forecast model did for the peak stage
b. Interpret how the different components of the river model contributed to the forecast and its errors
c. Explain the important role of accurate stage-discharge relationships
d. Relate this event to previous major flood events

Estimated time to complete: 120 min

Includes audio: yes

Required plug-ins:   Flash RealPlayer Java Adobe® Reader®
 * Plug-in information

Last published on: 2007-06-12

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Description:
The “River Ice Processes” module provides information on flooding associated with river ice jams. In this webcast, Dr. Kate White, nationally-recognized expert on river ice, explores basic river ice processes including the formation, growth, breakup, and transport of river ice and how it can become jammed, triggering floods. In addition, Dr. White covers the current, state-of-the-art ice jam forecasting, and current ice-modeling research and development being conducted by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. As a foundation topic for the Basic Hydrologic Science course, this module may be taken on its own, but it will also be available as a supporting topic providing factual scientific information to support students in completion of the case-based forecasting modules.

Objectives:
Describe factors leading to flash floods due to ice jams.
• Use standard language to describe ice jams.
• Describe basic ice processes including: formation, growth, breakup, and transport.
• Explain why ice jams form.

Describe methods and techniques used in prediction and forecasting of ice jams.
• Describe current modeling methods and tools used in ice jam prediction.
• Describe current research and development projects underway at the Cold Regions
Research and Engineering Laboratory (CRREL) of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
• Describe other tools and resources available through CRREL.

Estimated time to complete: 1 h

Includes audio: yes

Required plug-ins:   Flash RealPlayer Java Adobe® Reader®
 * Plug-in information

Last published on: 2006-11-10

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Description:
The Runoff Processes module offers a thorough introduction to the runoff processes critical for flood and water supply prediction. Through the use of rich illustrations, animations, and interactions, this module explains key terminology and concepts including paths to runoff, basin and soil properties and runoff modeling. It also provides an introduction to the National Weather Service River Forecast System (NWSRFS). As a foundation topic for the Basic Hydrologic Science course, this module may be taken on its own or used as a supporting topic to provide factual scientific information to students as they complete the case-based forecasting modules.

Objectives:
Explain basic runoff processes:
* Define rainfall runoff
* Identify the general movement of water both on the surface and in the ground
* Recognize the different terms associated with groundwater and runoff
* Understand the relationship between precipitation/snowmelt rate and infiltration

Describe the paths for runoff:
* Identify the different types of runoff that occur both at and below the surface
* Recognize the influence of surface and soil properties that influence surface runoff
* Understand the soil properties that influence subsurface runoff, or interflow
* Anticipate the types of runoff you may expect in your area given the rainfall/snowmelt rate and the soil properties

Explain basic basin issues related to runoff:
* Recognize basin characteristics and how the relate to runoff processes
* Explain the impact of urbanization on runoff characteristics

Describe how soil properties affect runoff:
* Anticipate water movement and runoff given soil characteristics
* Identify important soil properties in your area
* Understand how both natural and human factors influence the behavior of water in the soil

Describe basic concepts of runoff modeling:
* Understand the basic concepts in runoff modeling
* Recognize why complex versus simple models are used
* Describe how a lumped model works
* Describe how a semi-distributed model works
* Describe how a distributed model works and the potential advantages as well as limitations

Describe features of basic National Weather Service River Forecast System (NWRFS) models:
* The key components and subcomponents of the NWRFS
* Basic concepts behind and components of the SACSMA model
* Basic concepts behind and components of the API and Continuous API models

Estimated time to complete: 2-2.5 h

Includes audio: yes

Required plug-ins:   Flash RealPlayer Java Adobe® Reader®
 * Plug-in information

Last published on: 2006-06-13

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Description:
This module helps the student develop an understanding of the contribution of snowmelt in the hydrologic forecasting process. The module first explains the influences of wind, sun, terrain, and vegetation on snow water distribution and then discusses the evolution of snowpack characteristics. From there, the student will learn about energy exchanges between the snow and the atmosphere and how that affects how quickly and how completely snow will melt. Finally, an explanation is presented of water flow through snow and the fate of that water when it reaches the ground surface. The lesson will be highlighted with brief examples of actual snowmelt cases.

Objectives:
Describe the development and evolution of snowpack:
- Explain the influences of terrain, wind, vegetation, and temperature.
- Describe how sublimation affects snowpack.
- Describe the process of snow metamorphism.
- Explain SLR and SWE.
- Describe why and how snow energy exchanges are important.

Describe the processes leading up to and during melting:
- Explain the importance of latent heat exchange.
- Describe what is necessary for rapid melting.
- Explain the importance of rainfall on the snowmelt process.

Describe the fate of melt water from snow:
- Describe how water can move through the snowpack.
- Explain what happens when melt water reaches the ground surface.
- Discuss a situation that would result in rapid runoff from snowmelt.

Estimated time to complete: 60 min

Includes audio: yes

Required plug-ins:   Flash RealPlayer Java Adobe® Reader®
 * Plug-in information

Last published on: 2007-02-02

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Description:
This module offers a thorough introduction to streamflow routing methods and applications in the river forecasting process. Through the use of rich illustrations, animations, and interactions, this module explains key routing concepts, flow characteristics, and tools with a primary focus on hydrologic routing methods. As a foundation topic for the Basic Hydrologic Science Course, this module may be taken on its own or used as a supporting topic to provide factual scientific information to students as they complete the case-based forecasting modules.

Objectives:
1. Demonstrate an understanding of the streamflow routing process

2. Define streamflow routing:
a. Interpret stage and discharge graphs
b. Describe applications of streamflow routing
c. Explain how streamflow routing fits into the flood prediction process
d. Describe the major approaches used in streamflow routing

3. Describe the storage-release concept and the accounting budget approach

4. Describe flow categories and impact on the choice of routing method

5. Define common terms used to describe physical characteristics of streams

6. List the factors used in determining streamflow velocity and discharge via Manning’s equation

7. Use rating curves to determine the stage-discharge relationship, i.e., the expected discharge for a given depth of water at a given point for a given period

8. Explain concepts used in streamflow routing:
a. Describe how routing process is applied in river forecasting
b. Explain how storage concept is applied in routing
c. Describe wedge and prism storage approach as applied in the Muskingum method

9. Apply the Lag and K method for streamflow routing

10. Identify how hydraulic routing methods differ from hydrologic methods:
a. Describe when one might choose to use hydraulic over hydrologic methods

Estimated time to complete: 1.5-2 h

Includes audio: yes

Required plug-ins:   Flash RealPlayer Java Adobe® Reader®
 * Plug-in information

Last published on: 2006-03-17

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Description:
In this webcast, Dr. Richard Koehler, the National Hydrologic Sciences Training Coordinator for NOAA’s NWS provides an introduction to the elements of the NWS Hydrologic Ensemble Forecast System (HEFS). The module starts with a background on Ensemble Streamflow Prediction (ESP), along with an historical perspective on its development. Details are then provided on the need for and characteristics of hydrologic ensemble forecasts. A comparison is made to show how hydrologic and meteorological ensembles differ. Dr. Koehler then looks at the relationship between probability, risk and uncertainty as well as the probabilistic information within hydrologic ensemble products. Also discussed is how errors and uncertainty arise from both meteorological and hydrologic data input as well as the uncertainty within the model itself.

Objectives:
Understand the general characteristics and need for hydrologic ensembles
- Recognize the difference between meteorological and hydrologic ensembles
- Understand the relationship between probability, risk and uncertainty
- Recognize and identify sources of hydrologic uncertainty within ensembles
- Understand the goals of Hydrologic Ensemble Forecast System processes
- Comprehend probability information within hydrologic ensemble products

Estimated time to complete: .75 - 1.00 h

Includes audio: yes

Required plug-ins:   Flash RealPlayer Java Adobe® Reader®
 * Plug-in information

Last published on: 2009-09-29

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Description:
This module helps students gain a basic understanding of the elements of the hydrologic cycle. Making use of illustrations, animations, and interactions, this module examines the basic concepts of the hydrologic cycle including water distribution, atmospheric water, surface water, groundwater, and snowpack/snowmelt.

Objectives:
Develop an understanding of the elements of the hydrologic cycle with the goal of making effective use of data sources and tools for forecasting

Introduction to Hydrologic Cycle:
Define the key features of hydrology and the hydrologic cycle
Name the components of the hydrologic cycle
Describe the basic concept of the Accounting Budget Approach for hydrology

Distribution:
Recognize the four main forms in which water is stored and distributed in the hydrologic cycle
Describe the key features of ocean water
Define the key features of surface water
Define groundwater and describe its key components

Atmospheric Water:
Identify the key processes in atmospheric water
Describe the significance of condensation and precipitation. Identify key methods and tools used in measurement.
Define evaporation and the key methods and tools for measurement. Describe the issues that complicate measurement process.
Define transpiration and describe its role in the rainfall-runoff process
Describe the varied rates of transpiration for different surface vegetation types

Surface Water:
Define the key processes associated with surface water: Infiltration, Soil Moisture, and Runoff
Identify the factors influencing infiltration
Describe the elements of soil composition
Describe possible soil conditions and how they affect infiltration
Define runoff and describe the use of the hydrograph in measuring it
Describe the elements of runoff

Groundwater:
Describe the importance of groundwater for the hydrologic cycle
Describe the characteristics of different types of aquifers
Define recharge
Describe natural and artificial recharge methods
Define withdrawal and describe its effects on a water table

Snowpack and Snowmelt:
Describe the critical role of snow and ice in the hydrologic cycle
Define snow water equivalent, and identify factors affecting snowmelt rate
Describe the key steps in the snowmelt process

Estimated time to complete: 1.5-2 h

Includes audio: yes

Required plug-ins:   Flash RealPlayer Java Adobe® Reader®
 * Plug-in information

Last published on: 2005-11-07

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Description:
The role of unit hydrograph theory in the flood prediction process is to provide an estimate of streamflow given the precipitation. A unit hydrograph shows the temporal change in flow, or discharge, per unit of runoff from excess precipitation. In other words, the unit hydrograph shows how the flow of a stream will be affected over time by the addition of one unit of runoff. This module offers a thorough introduction to the use of unit hydrographs and the application of unit hydrograph theory in flood prediction. Through use of rich illustrations, animations, and interactions, this module explains key terminology and assumptions, outlines the steps in creation of a unit hydrograph, examines the issues surrounding application of unit hydrograph theory, and discusses important considerations for forecasters.

Objectives:
1. Define key features of unit hydrographs and of unit hydrograph theory.
• Explain why we need unit hydrographs.
• Describe how unit hydrograph theory is used as a tool in forecasting runoff.
• Define the basic components of a unit hydrograph.

2. Identify important terms and assumptions in unit hydrograph theory.
3. Explain key issues for application of unit hydrograph theory.
• Identify reasons that some precipitation events may not be accurately represented by a unit hydrograph.
• Explain the impact of using English or metric units of measure.
• Describe the process for application of unit hydrographs to storms covering multiple time durations.
4. Recognize the forecast implications of unit hydrograph theory for real precipitation events.
• Describe potential effects on actual hydrograph data based on storm coverage and basin changes.

Estimated time to complete: 1.5-2 h

Includes audio: yes

Required plug-ins:   Flash RealPlayer Java Adobe® Reader®
 * Plug-in information

Last published on: 2005-12-27

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Description:
This module features an audio and visual tour of sites affected by the Fort Collins, Colorado urban flood that occurred on 28 July 1997. The tour is led by Matthew Kelsch and includes eyewitness accounts of that night's events from John Weaver. This interactive virtual field trip module summarizes many of the important common aspects of flash floods occurring in urban environments.

Estimated time to complete: 60 min

Includes audio: yes

Required plug-ins:   Flash RealPlayer Java Adobe® Reader®
 * Plug-in information

Last published on: 2001-05-24

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Description:
This short course provides broadcast meteorologists with knowledge and instructional materials to help them understand watersheds as our environmental home and to help their viewers understand the relationship between the weather and the health and protection of the environment. Environmental impacts in many areas of the country result from the daily actions of people. We can easily see the consequences of a major oil spill at sea that is driven ashore by winds and ocean currents, but what about the fertilizer that people put on their lawns and the de-icer they apply to their driveway, or changing the car’s oil in the backyard, or the pet waste in the yard or local park? Combined with weather, all of these have an impact on both the local environment and the larger regional environment.


This short course takes a story-telling approach through the use of movie-like sequences of audio and imagery to show how the concept of a watershed can be related to local concerns and to connect it to people in a personal way. The goal of this course is to:

Provide an understanding of a watershed as the local environment in which people’s actions and decisions play against the background of daily and seasonal weather to affect the quality and health of their local watershed as well as the larger system of watersheds of which their watershed is one part.

Objectives:

• Know how to describe a watershed and locate the watersheds for your viewing region.


• Be able to find the hydrologic address of a watershed and describe how watersheds are interconnected into a river system.


• Be able to relate the concept of a watershed to urban settings.


• Know the distribution of water within a watershed and how to find water sources for a population center in your viewing area.


• Describe how sources of non-point pollution, especially in urban areas, impact water quality.


• Know how human-engineered changes in the watershed affect the location and severity of flooding following heavy precipitation events.


• Be able to relate the impact of drought on a watershed and watershed system.

Estimated time to complete: 2 h

Includes audio: yes

Required plug-ins:   Flash RealPlayer Java Adobe® Reader®
 * Plug-in information

Last published on: 2006-08-30

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Description:
This is the first of three cases examining numerical weather prediction (NWP) aspects of Tropical Storm Allison, which moved into Texas from the Gulf of Mexico on 5 June 2001. The Houston, TX area was inundated by up to three feet of rain between 5 and 8 June, most of which occurred on June 8th, three days after the storm made landfall. Twenty-two deaths resulted, many of which were the result of cars being swept away by flash flooding. Importantly, flash flood watches and warnings were made in a timely manner by the Houston/Galveston TX WFO, in spite of the Eta forecast problems.

This first case mainly considers whether the volume of rain that occurred over the Houston, TX area, particularly on 8 June, was predictable using the Eta-22 and Eta-10 (threats nest) models from the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP).

Estimated time to complete: 30 min

Includes audio: no

Required plug-ins:   Flash RealPlayer Java Adobe® Reader®
 * Plug-in information

Last published on: 2002-01-23

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Description:
This last of three cases examines numerical weather prediction (NWP) aspects of Tropical Storm Allison, which moved past the Philadelphia area on 16 – 17 June 2001. Neshaminy Creek overflowed its banks on 16 June after the area it drains received 6-10" of rain over a 12-hour period. The Neshaminy Creek watershed is only about 750 km2 in size, or about 7 grid squares in size for the Eta-12 (less than 2 grid squares for the mesoscale model in operation at the time, the Eta-22!). This is obviously too small for the computer models to capture the details of the small-scale heavy rains which unfortunately happened to center over the Neshaminy basin.

This final case mainly considers what the computer models, particularly the Eta-22 and nested Eta-10, showed in their forecasts, including QPF, and what other considerations, including construction of a crude ensemble forecast, might be helpful in the decision-making process for flash flood watches and warnings in the Philadelphia area.

Estimated time to complete: 30 min

Includes audio: no

Required plug-ins:   Flash RealPlayer Java Adobe® Reader®
 * Plug-in information

Last published on: 2002-01-25

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Description:
This case discusses one occurrence of a well-known problem with the GFS; grid-scale precipitation bombs at T170L42 resolution. Anecdotal evidence suggests that these precipitation bulls'-eyes have been more frequent this warm season, particularly in the central and northern Plains and Midwest. The time-scale, spatial scale, and effect of the GFS precipitation bombs on the forecast are examined. We also discuss whether GFS forecasts that produce such features can be useful to the operational meteorologist.

Estimated time to complete: 1 h

Includes audio: no

Required plug-ins:   Flash RealPlayer Java Adobe® Reader®
 * Plug-in information

Last published on: 2002-11-25

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Description:
After looping through east Texas and flooding the Houston metropolitan area with as much as 36" of rain over 4 days, Tropical Storm Allison moved back over the Gulf of Mexico, only to make landfall again over southern Louisiana. This second of three cases on this storm examines the predictability of its behavior over the southeastern United States, as Allison moved steadily east-northeastward from the Louisiana coast over the course of 3 days, before stalling over eastern North Carolina.

This portion of the storm's history was remarkable for:



* Maintenance of storm circulation

* Maintenance of some aspects of its tropical characteristics

* Inability of the mesoscale models at NCEP (both Eta-22 and 10-km nests) to capture the behavior of the storm



This case examines the behavior of the Eta model in forecasting the movement and precipitation from Allison as it moved through the Southeast.

Estimated time to complete: 30 min

Includes audio: no

Required plug-ins:   Flash RealPlayer Java Adobe® Reader®
 * Plug-in information

Last published on: 2001-12-20

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Description:
Este curso está diseñado para las personas sin capacitación formal en hidrología que trabajarán con datos hidrológicos, especialmente para pronosticar crecidas. El objetivo del curso consiste en brindarle los conocimientos necesarios para comprender las complejas interacciones entre las aguas terrestres y atmosféricas, y prepararle para profundizar sus conocimientos en este campo.

Este curso comprende una orientación, ocho temas fundamentales y dos módulos con casos de estudio. La orientación presenta en términos generales todos los componentes del curso. El tema fundamental introductorio proporciona información básica sobre los conceptos esenciales de hidrología. Los demás temas fundamentales exploran áreas específicas de la hidrología y cubren terminología y suposiciones, así como procesos y factores esenciales para el pronóstico hidrológico. Los casos de estudio integran el material de los temas fundamentales en situaciones de pronóstico realistas.

Para obtener el certificado de finalización del curso en español debe terminar los cinco temas centrales, lo cual lleva entre 6 y 8 horas. Aunque los dos módulos de casos de estudio no son un requisito para obtener el certificado del curso en español, recomendamos su estudio.

Los temas fundamentales de interés especial explican los procesos hidrológicos relacionados con nieve y hielo, y pese a que no forman parte de los temas centrales, en muchas regiones pueden considerarse temas obligatorios. Los temas relacionados no forman parte de este curso específicamente, aunque aportan material importante relacionado con los pronósticos hidrológicos.

Estimated time to complete: 6-8 h

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Description:
Este módulo, creado bajo la dirección de Sheldon Kusselson (Satellite Analysis Branch, NESDIS), presenta el desarrollo del producto de potencial de precipitación tropical (TraP) y numerosos ejemplos tomados de las temporadas de huracanes más recientes para comparar las cantidades de precipitación pronosticadas por el modelo, las cantidades de precipitación estimadas por TRaP y las lluvias observadas. El módulo concluye con una serie de pautas para usar el producto TRaP y una descripción de las mejoras previstas para el futuro.

Objectives:
Cuando termine de estudiar el módulo, podrá:
• explicar los fundamentos de la técnica TRaP, así como su formulación y los datos de entrada;
• enumerar las suposiciones y las limitaciones de dicha técnica;
• encontrar y acceder a los productos TRaP en internet;
• interpretar las imágenes TRaP para estimar la precipitación.

Estimated time to complete: 1 h

Includes audio: no

Required plug-ins:   Flash RealPlayer Java Adobe® Reader®
 * Plug-in information

Last published on: 2008-03-06

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Description:
Este módulo presenta los productos de percepción remota por microondas generados por satélites polares que describen la humedad en la atmósfera y las tasas de precipitación. El módulo comienza con una explicación de los productos agua precipitable total y agua líquida en las nubes, y los compara con las imágenes infrarrojas de vapor de agua. A continuación el módulo presenta una serie de casos de ejemplo que destacan el papel de las imágenes de agua precipitable total y de tasa de precipitación por microondas para pronosticar con precisión los sistemas meteorológicos. Finalmente, el módulo describe la misión de observación de la precipitación mundial (Global Precipitation Monitoring) para la cual el aporte de los futuros satélites NPOESS será importante. Tardará aproximadamente 75 minutos en terminar este módulo.

Objectives:
Cuando termine de estudiar el módulo, podrá:

• Dar una definición de agua precipitable total (TPW).


• Dar una definición de agua líquida en las nubes (CLW).


• Describir la diferencia entre las regiones de ventana atmosférica y las regiones de absorción del espectro electromagnético.


• Explicar cómo se derivan las tasas de lluvia sobre tierra firme y sobre el océano.


• Describir los objetivos de la misión de medición de la precipitación global (Global Precipitation Measurement Mission).


• Interpretar los productos de agua precipitable total, agua líquida en las nubes y tasa de lluvia a partir
  de los casos de ejemplo.

Estimated time to complete: 75 min

Includes audio: no

Required plug-ins:   Flash RealPlayer Java Adobe® Reader®
 * Plug-in information

Last published on: 2008-04-01

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Description:
Este módulo, que representa la primera entrega del Curso Básico de Hidrología, ayuda al estudiante a desarrollar un nivel básico de comprensión de los elementos del ciclo hidrológico. El módulo emplea ilustraciones, animaciones y materiales interactivos para examinar los conceptos básicos del ciclo hidrológico, como la distribución del agua, el agua atmosférica, el agua de superficie, al agua subterránea y la acumulación y el derretimiento de nieve.

El Curso Básico de Hidrología permite comprender los conceptos principales de hidrología y su aplicación a las predicciones hidrológicas. Como este módulo es el primero de los temas fundamentales del curso, se puede estudiar de forma independiente, aunque estará también disponible como tema de apoyo desde cualquiera de los módulos planeados basados en casos reales.

Objectives:
Desarrollar un cierto grado de comprensión de los elementos del ciclo hidrológico con el fin de utilizar las herramientas y fuentes de datos de forma más eficaz al generar sus pronósticos.

Introducción al ciclo hidrológico:
• Definir los aspectos más importantes de la hidrología y del ciclo hidrológico
• Nombrar los componentes del ciclo hidrológico
• Describir el concepto básico del balance hídrico en hidrología

Distribución:
• Reconocer las cuatro formas principales en que el agua se almacena y se distribuye en el ciclo hidrológico
• Describir las características más importantes del agua oceánica
• Definir las características más importantes del agua de superficie
• Describir el agua subterránea o freática y definir sus componentes más importantes

Agua atmosférica:
• Identificar los procesos más importantes del agua atmosférica
• Describir la importancia de la condensación y precipitación; identificar los métodos y herramientas más importantes empleados en su medición
• Definir la evaporación y los métodos y herramientas más importantes para su medición
• Describir los problemas que complican el proceso de medición
• Definir la transpiración y describir su papel en el proceso de lluvia y escorrentía
• Describir las distintas tasas de transpiración para diferentes tipos de vegetación superficial

Agua superficial:
• Definir los procesos más importantes asociados con el agua superficial: infiltración, humedad del suelo, escorrentía
• Identificar los factores que influyen en la infiltración
• Describir los elementos que componen el suelo
• Describir las posibles condiciones del suelo y cómo influyen en la infiltración
• Definir la escorrentía y describir el uso del hidrograma para medirla
• Describir los elementos de la escorrentía

Agua subterránea:
• Describir la importancia del agua subterránea en el ciclo hidrológico
• Describir las características de distintos tipos de acuíferos
• Definir el proceso de recarga
• Describir los métodos de recarga natural y artificial
• Definir la extracción y describir sus efectos en el nivel freático

Capa de nieve y deshielo:
• Describir el importante papel de la nieve y del hielo en el ciclo hidrológico
• Definir el equivalente en agua de la nieve e identificar los factores que afectan a la velocidad de deshielo
• Describir los pasos más importantes del proceso de deshielo

Estimated time to complete: 30 min

Includes audio: no

Required plug-ins:   Flash RealPlayer Java Adobe® Reader®
 * Plug-in information

Last published on: 2006-08-03

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Description:
La teoría del hidrograma unitario permite estimar el caudal dada la precipitación, lo cual se puede utilizar en la predicción de crecidas. El hidrograma unitario muestra el cambio en el caudal, o flujo, por unidad de escorrentía a lo largo del tiempo a partir del exceso de precipitación. En otras palabras, el hidrograma unitario muestra cómo el caudal de un río se verá afectado con el tiempo por la adición de una unidad de escorrentía. Este módulo presenta de forma completa el uso de los hidrogramas unitarios y la aplicación de la teoría del hidrograma unitario en la predicción de crecidas. El módulo emplea ilustraciones, animaciones y materiales interactivos para explicar terminología y suposiciones clave, presenta los pasos involucrados en la creación de un hidrograma unitario, examina los asuntos relacionados con la aplicación de la teoría de hidrograma unitario y trata ciertas consideraciones importantes en meteorología.

Objectives:
1. Definir los componentes básicos de un hidrograma unitario y de la teoría del hidrograma unitario
• Explicar por qué necesitamos usar los hidrogramas unitarios
• Describir el uso de la teoría del hidrograma unitario como herramienta para predecir la escorrentía
• Definir algunos de los componentes básicos de un hidrograma unitario
2. Identificar términos y suposiciones importantes de la teoría del hidrograma unitario
3. Describir los pasos básicos a seguir para derivar un hidrograma unitario
• Identificar las causas de que un hidrograma unitario no represente con precisión algunos episodios de lluvia
• Explicar el impacto del uso de las unidades métricas o inglesas
• Describir el proceso de aplicar hidrogramas unitarios a tormentas que cubren múltiples duraciones
4. Reconocer las implicancias para el pronóstico cuando se aplica la teoría del hidrograma unitario a episodios de precipitación reales
• Describir los posibles efectos que la cobertura de la tormenta y ciertos cambios que pueden darse en la cuenca pueden tener en los datos de un hidrograma real

Estimated time to complete: 30 min

Includes audio: no

Required plug-ins:   Flash RealPlayer Java Adobe® Reader®
 * Plug-in information

Last published on: 2006-09-20

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Description:
Este módulo ofrece una buena introducción a los métodos de tránsito de avenidas y sus aplicaciones el en proceso de generación de pronósticos fluviales. El módulo emplea ilustraciones, animaciones y materiales interactivos para explicar los conceptos básicos del tránsito de avenidas, las características de flujo y las herramientas, centrándose principalmente en los métodos hidrológicos para calcular el tránsito de avenidas. Como este módulo es uno de los temas fundamentales del Curso Básico de Hidrología, se puede estudiar de forma independiente o como tema de apoyo que aporta información científica real a medida que el estudiante termina los módulos de pronóstico planeados basados en casos reales.

Objectives:
Objetivos:
1. Demostrar la comprensión del proceso de tránsito de avenidas
2. Definir el tránsito de avenidas:
a. Interpretar los hidrogramas de nivel y de caudal
b. Describir las aplicaciones del tránsito de avenidas
c. Explicar el papel del tránsito de avenidas en el proceso de predicción de crecidas
d. Describir los enfoques principales empleados para calcular el tránsito de avenidas
3. Describir el concepto de almacenamiento y descarga y el enfoque en el balance de almacenamiento
4. Describir las categorías de flujo y su impacto en la elección del método de cálculo del tránsito de avenidas
5. Definir los términos comunes empleados para describir las características físicas de los ríos
6. Enumerar los factores empleados para determinar la velocidad y el caudal de una corriente de agua mediante la ecuación de Manning
7. Usar las curvas de gastos para determinar la relación nivel-caudal, es decir, el caudal que podemos esperar para determinada profundidad de agua en un punto dado durante un período en particular
8. Explicar los conceptos empleados en el cálculo de tránsito de avenidas:
a. Describir cómo se aplica el proceso de tránsito de avenidas en los pronósticos fluviales
b. Explicar cómo el concepto de almacenamiento se aplica al tránsito de avenidas
c. Describir el enfoque de almacenamiento en cuña y prisma tal como se aplica en el método de Muskingum
9. Aplicar el método de tránsito de avenidas de retardo y K
10. Identificar en qué difieren los métodos hidráulicos para calcular el tránsito de avenidas de los métodos hidrológicos:
a. Reconocer las situaciones en las que conviene seleccionar un método hidráulico en lugar de un método hidrológico

Estimated time to complete: 30 min

Includes audio: no

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Last published on: 2006-09-20

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El módulo Procesos de escorrentía ofrece una buena introducción a los procesos de escorrentía esenciales para la predicción de avenidas y suministros hídricos. El módulo emplea ilustraciones, animaciones y materiales interactivos para explicar la terminología y los conceptos básicos, incluyendo la producción de escorrentía, las propiedades de cuencas y suelos y el modelado de la escorrentía. También incluye una introducción al sistema de pronósticos fluviales del National Weather Service (NWSRFS). Como este módulo es uno de los temas fundamentales del Curso Básico de Hidrología, se puede estudiar de forma independiente o como tema de apoyo que aporta información científica real a medida que el estudiante termina los módulos de pronóstico planeados basados en casos reales.

Objectives:
Explicar los procesos básicos de escorrentía:
* definir la escorrentía producida por la lluvia
* identificar el movimiento general del agua, tanto en la superficie como en el subsuelo
* reconocer los distintos términos asociados con el agua subterránea y la escorrentía
* comprender la relación existente entre la velocidad de precipitación y deshielo y la infiltración

Describir las trayectorias de la escorrentía:
* identificar los distintos tipos de escorrentía que se producen en la superficie y en el subsuelo
* reconocer el impacto de las propiedades de la superficie y del suelo que influyen en la escorrentía superficial
* comprender las propiedades del suelo que influyen en la escorrentía subsuperficial o interflujo
* prever los tipos de escorrentía que puede esperarse en su zona considerando el índice de pluviosidad, la velocidad de deshielo y las propiedades del suelo

Explicar los asuntos básicos de la cuenca relacionadas con la escorrentía:
* reconocer las características de una cuenca y cómo influyen en los procesos de escorrentía
* explicar el impacto de la urbanización sobre las características de escorrentía

Describir cómo las propiedades del suelo:
* predecir el movimiento del agua y de la escorrentía dadas las características del suelo
* identificar las propiedades del suelo importantes en su zona
* comprender cómo los factores naturales y humanos influyen en el movimiento del agua en el suelo

Describir los conceptos básicos del modelado de escorrentía:
* comprender los conceptos básicos de modelado de escorrentía
* reconocer en qué situaciones es más apropiado un modelo complejo o simple
* describir el funcionamiento de un modelo agrupado
* describir el funcionamiento de un modelo semidistribuido
* describir el funcionamiento de un modelo distribuido, así como sus potenciales ventajas y limitaciones

Describir las características de los modelos básicos del sistema de pronósticos fluviales del Servicio Nacional de Meteorología (NWS) de EE.UU.:
* los principales componentes y subcomponentes del NWSRFS
* los conceptos básicos y componentes principales del modelo SACSMA
* los conceptos básicos y componentes principales de los modelos API y API continuo

Estimated time to complete: 30 min

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Last published on: 2006-09-20

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Este módulo brinda información sobre las inundaciones asociadas con la obstrucción de los ríos debido a la acumulación de hielo fluvial. Esta adaptación de un webcast presentado por la Dra. Kate White, experta en la materia, explora los procesos básicos del hielo fluvial, incluidos los aspectos de formación, crecimiento, fracturación y transporte, y cómo puede provocar obstrucciones e inundaciones. Además, la Dra. White describe el moderno proceso de pronóstico de hielo y el trabajo de investigación y desarrollo de modelado de hielo que está realizando el Cuerpo de Ingenieros del Ejército de los EE.UU. Como este módulo es uno de los temas fundamentales del Curso Básico de Hidrología, se puede estudiar de forma independiente o como tema de apoyo que aporta información científica real a medida que el estudiante termina los módulos de pronóstico planeados basados en casos reales.

Objectives:
Describir los factores que causan las inundaciones repentinas provocadas por las barreras de hielo:
* usar una terminología uniforme para describir las barreras de hielo;
* describir los procesos básicos del hielo, como su formación, crecimiento, ruptura y transporte;
* explicar por qué se forman las barreras de hielo.

Describir los métodos y las técnicas que se utilizan en la predicción y el pronóstico de las barreras de hielo:
* describir los métodos y las herramientas de modelado que se utilizan actualmente para predecir las barreras de hielo;
* describir los proyectos de investigación y desarrollo que se están realizando en el Laboratorio de Investigación e Ingeniería de las Regiones Frías (Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, o CRREL), que forma parte del Cuerpo de Ingenieros del Ejército de los Estados Unidos (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers);
* describir otros recursos y herramientas disponibles a través de CRREL.

Estimated time to complete: 1 h

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Last published on: 2007-08-29

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Description:
El Servicio Nacional de Meteorología (National Weather Service, NWS) de NOAA define las crecidas o inundaciones repentinas como crecidas que amenazan la vida de la población y que comienzan dentro de 6 horas (y a menudo dentro de 3 horas) de un evento causante. Dicho evento puede ser una lluvia intensa, la ruptura de un embalse, un dique u otra estructura que retiene el agua, o bien la crecida repentina del nivel del agua asociada con la obstrucción de un río debido a la acumulación de hielo.

Este módulo presenta las características que distinguen las crecidas repentinas, los factores hidrológicos subyacentes que influyen en ellas y el uso de los productos de orientación de crecidas. El módulo emplea ilustraciones, animaciones y materiales interactivos para explicar las diferencias entre las crecidas repentinas y las inundaciones en general, y examina los procesos hidrológicos que influyen en el peligro de que se produzcan crecidas repentinas. Además, el módulo presenta el uso de los productos de orientación de crecidas, incluyendo los derivados de ThreshR y las curvas de lluvia-escorrentía, así como los puntos fuertes y las limitaciones actuales.

Objectives:
Definir una inundación repentina:
* distinguir entre una inundación repentina y una crecida regular;
* identificar los diferentes procesos físicos que provocan las inundaciones repentinas;
* reconocer la conexión entre la intensidad de la precipitación y las características de la escorrentía asociada con las inundaciones repentinas.

Explicar los factores hidrológicos que influyen en las inundaciones repentinas:
* aplicar información sobre los procesos de escorrentía al problema de las inundaciones repentinas;
* explicar por qué ciertas texturas y algunos perfiles del suelo pueden implicar un mayor riesgo de inundaciones repentinas;
* explicar las características físicas que hacen que una cuenca fluvial sea más susceptible a las inundaciones repentinas que otra;
* explicar la rapidez y frecuencia con que las inundaciones repentinas pueden ocurrir en los entornos urbanos;
* explicar el impacto de los incendios y la deforestación para las inundaciones repentinas.

Comprender los problemas clave relacionados con el uso de los productos guía para inundaciones repentinas, o FFG (Flash Flood Guidance):
* definir la guía para inundaciones repentinas;
* explicar el uso del producto de umbral de escorrentía (ThreshR) y las curvas lluvia-escorrentía para derivar la guía para inundaciones repentinas;
* explicar cómo se genera la guía para inundaciones repentinas para diferentes entidades espaciales (cabecera, condado, sobre malla) y duraciones;
* reconocer cómo y cuando las limitaciones pueden afectar los pronósticos.

Estimated time to complete: 1 h

Includes audio: yes

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Last published on: 2007-08-29

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Este módulo presenta el uso del análisis de frecuencia de crecidas para la predicción y planificación en caso de inundaciones. El módulo emplea ilustraciones atractivas, animaciones y materiales interactivos para explicar los conceptos básicos, los problemas de fondo y los métodos para analizar los datos de crecidas. Se presentan también conceptos comunes, como las inundaciones de 100 años y los períodos de retorno, así como los asuntos que influyen en la representación estadística de las crecidas. También se cubren los métodos comunes de análisis de los datos de crecidas, así como una descripción general de los eventos de diseño. Como módulo de tema fundamental del futuro curso básico de ciencias hidrológicas, se puede estudiar de forma independiente, aunque estará también disponible como tema de apoyo desde cualquiera de los módulos planeados basados en casos reales.

Objectives:
Explicar los conceptos clave del análisis de frecuencia de crecidas:
* definir el concepto de período de retorno (p. ej., la avenida de 100 años);
* explicar la probabilidad de excedencia o de ocurrencia y su relación con el período de retorno;
* comprender la dos aplicaciones principales de los análisis de frecuencia de crecidas.

Comprender los conceptos clave que influyen en la representación estadística de las crecidas:
* explicar cómo el período de datos históricos afecta la guía de frecuencia de crecidas;
* calcular la probabilidad de ocurrencia o no excedencia de una crecida de determinada magnitud en un período de tiempo dado;
* comprender cómo los cambios realizados en las cuencas de drenaje afectan las características y la frecuencia de las crecidas, y reducen el período de datos históricos.

Aplicar métodos comunes de análisis de los datos de crecidas:
* explicar los conceptos básicos de las series de duración anual y parcial;
* realizar un análisis de frecuencia a partir del caudal máximo registrado para un río.

Explicar el propósito y el uso de los eventos de proyecto:
* identificar el motivo por usar eventos de proyecto;
* comprender la utilidad de los eventos de proyecto y sus limitaciones y restricciones;
* explicar el concepto de evento de precipitación máxima probable;
* comprender el concepto de avenida de proyecto estándar.

Estimated time to complete: 1-2 h

Includes audio: yes

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Last published on: 2007-08-29

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Description:
Este módulo guía al usuario a través de las consideraciones que fueron necesarias en el proceso de decisión al generar los pronósticos fluviales asociados con los restos del huracán Ivan entre el 17 y el 19 de septiembre de 2004 para el sistema fluvial del río Susquehanna en Pennsylvania y Nueva York, EE.UU. El módulo ayuda a aplicar los conceptos cubiertos en los temas fundamentales del Curso Básico de Hidrología. Entre otros, se tratan los siguientes temas específicos relevantes para este caso de estudio: condiciones del suelo, impacto del pronóstico cuantitativo de la precipitación (PCP) en la escorrentía, modelos de escorrentía, procesos de escorrentía, propagación o tránsito de caudales y relaciones nivel-caudal. También se consideran las observaciones de las condiciones aguas arriba y las comparaciones con las puntas de crecida históricas en términos de ayuda para tomar decisiones de pronósticos operativos de avenidas. Debido a que este módulo supone ciertos conocimientos previos de principios hidrológicos, recomendamos estudiar los temas fundamentales centrales como requisito previo.

Objectives:
1. Describir las condiciones hidrológicas de la cuenca del río Susquehanna antes de los eventos asociados con el paso de los restos de huracán Ivan en la cuenca del río Susquehanna entre el 17 y 19 de septiembre de 2004:
* describir la geografía local y su impacto en la escorrentía generada por la tormenta;
* usar la climatología como referencia para identificar las posibles repercusiones de la tormenta;
* describir la textura del suelo, el perfil del suelo y las condiciones de cubierta vegetal de la región;
* analizar los niveles de la humedad del suelo antecedente para la zona.

2. Analizar la lluvia observada y pronosticada, los factores que influyen en la escorrentía y los pronósticos fluviales iniciales para el río Susquehanna antes de este evento:
* analizar la información sobre la lluvia y el suelo y anticipar su impacto en la escorrentía;
* interpretar la información sobre escorrentía generada por los modelos fluviales;
* anticipar cómo los errores de PCP pueden afectar la magnitud de la escorrentía.

3. Aplicar los conocimientos sobre los procesos de escorrentía y el modelado fluvial a los caudales observados e históricos con el fin de generar un pronóstico para el río Susquehanna en Wilkes-Barre:
* analizar y anticipar los mecanismos de escorrentía predominantes durante el desarrollo de un episodio de crecida;
* examinar las contribuciones relativas de los distintos componentes del hidrograma del pronóstico;
* examinar el impacto de los cambios en la precipitación sobre la punta de avenida esperada;
* analizar el impacto de los errores en el pronóstico de precipitación sobre los errores del pronóstico de escorrentía;
* anticipar el impacto de la escorrentía propagada desde zonas aguas arriba;
* usar observaciones e información histórica para evaluar la probabilidad de un evento extremo pronosticado;
* interpretar y ajustar la guía de los modelos de pronóstico fluvial;
* emitir un pronóstico fluvial pese a las incertidumbres;
* comprender la importancia de la experiencia para el proceso de creación de un pronóstico.

4. Evaluar las lecciones aprendidas durante el proceso de pronóstico hasta y durante este evento de crecida:
* validar la actuación del modelo de pronóstico fluvial para el nivel máximo de crecida;
* interpretar el aporte de los distintos componentes del modelo fluvial al pronóstico y sus errores;
* explicar el importante papel de las curvas de gastos;
* relacionar este evento a eventos pasados de crecidas importantes.

Estimated time to complete: 120 min

Includes audio: yes

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Last published on: 2007-08-29

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Este módulo ayuda a comprender el papel del deshielo en el proceso de pronóstico hidrológico. El módulo comienza con una explicación de cómo los factores tales como el viento, el sol, la topografía y la vegetación influyen en la distribución del agua de deshielo y después presenta la evolución de las características de la capa de nieve. Esa base permite estudiar los intercambios energéticos entre la nieve y la atmósfera y cómo influyen en la rapidez y totalidad del derretimiento de la nieve. Finalmente, se explican el movimiento del agua por la nieve y su destino cuando alcanza la superficie del suelo. La lección incluye varios ejemplos breves de casos reales de deshielo.

Objectives:
Describir el desarrollo y la evolución de la capa de nieve:
* explicar los efectos del terreno, del viento, de la vegetación y de la temperatura;
* describir cómo la sublimación afecta la capa de nieve;
* describir el proceso de metamorfismo de la nieve;
* explicar los conceptos de relación nieve a líquido y equivalente en agua de la nieve;
* describir la importancia de los intercambios de energía que tienen lugar en la capa de nieve.

Describir los procesos hasta y durante el deshielo:
* explicar la importancia del intercambio de calor latente;
* describir las condiciones necesarias para el deshielo rápido;
* explicar la importancia de la lluvia para el proceso de deshielo de la nieve.

Describir el destino del agua del deshielo de la nieve:
* describir el movimiento del agua por una capa de nieve acumulada;
* explicar lo que ocurre cuando el agua de deshielo alcanza la superficie del suelo;
* describir una situación en que el deshielo produciría un episodio de escorrentía rápida.

Estimated time to complete: 1 h

Includes audio: yes

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Last published on: 2007-08-29

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Este módulo guía al usuario a través de siete casos de estudio de eventos de inundación repentina que ocurrieron en la región continental de los EE.UU. entre 2003 y 2006. Se presentan los casos siguientes:

* 30-31 de agosto de 2003: Condados de Chase y Lyon, Kansas
* 16-17 de septiembre de 2004: Condado de Macon, Carolina del Norte
* 31 de julio de 2006: Montañas de Santa Catalina, cerca de Tucson, Arizona
* 25 de diciembre de 2003: Zona quemada cerca de San Bernardino, California
* 30 de agosto de 2004: Inundación repentina urbana en Richmond, Virginia
* 19-20 de agosto de 2003: Inundación repentina urbana en Las Vegas, Nevada
* 9 de octubre de 2005: Condado de Cheshire, Nueva Hampshire

Este módulo ayuda al usuario a aplicar los conceptos cubiertos en los temas fundamentales del curso Curso Básico de Hidrología. Entre otros, se tratan los siguientes temas específicos relevantes para estos casos de estudio: características físicas de las cuencas que las hacen propensas a las inundaciones repentinas, respuesta de las cuencas a la precipitación, orientación para inundaciones repentinas, o FFG (Flash Flood Guidance), relación entre incendio descontrolados e inundaciones repentinas y relación entre urbanización e inundaciones repentinas. Los casos de estudio tocan también otros temas relacionados, como estimaciones cuantitativas de precipitación por radar, productos de monitorización y predicción de inundaciones repentinas (FFMP) del National Weather Service, flujos de escombros, agua retenida y comunicaciones entre distintas agencias. Debido a que este módulo supone ciertos conocimientos previos de principios hidrológicos, recomendamos estudiar los temas fundamentales centrales como requisito previo. En particular, los módulos Procesos de escorrentía y Procesos de inundación repentina contienen material directamente relacionado con estos casos de estudio.

Objectives:
1. Comprender la respuesta hidrológica frente a las lluvias intensas que lleva a escorrentía rápida e inundaciones repentinas.
2. Reconocer la utilidad y las limitaciones de las herramientas de pronóstico de inundaciones repentinas del NWS (FFMP, FFG, QPE de radar).
3. Comprender que las cuencas propensas a inundaciones repentinas pueden ser muy pequeñas.
4. Identificar la característica señal de tormenta de centroide de eco bajo (Low Echo Centroid, LEC) y entender lo que implica en términos de producción de lluvia.
5. Comprender la utilidad y las limitaciones de diferentes relaciones Z-R.
6. Reconocer la información proporcionada por la herramienta de monitorización y predicción de inundaciones repentinas (FFMP) aguas arriba y aguas abajo.
7. Recordar cómo y por qué la lluvia indicada por el software FFMP para una cuenca puede ocultar problemas de radar, como las barreras topográficas.
8. Considerar formas de utilizar otros datos en áreas donde hay barreras topográficas que obstruyen el haz del radar.
9. Comprender el posible impacto de un incendio en la hidrología de la cuenca.
10. Recordar que una inundación repentina puede provocar flujos de escombros.
11. Comprender que en algunas circunstancias puede ser apropiado modificar los valores de orientación para inundaciones repentinas (FFG).
12. Reconocer la información importante que brindan los campos de diferencias y razones de la herramienta de monitorización y predicción de inundaciones repentinas (FFMP).
13. Estar consciente de los importantes esfuerzos colaborativos entre el NWS y otras agencias, como el Servicio Geológico de EE.UU. (USGS).
14. Comprender el enorme impacto que el desarrollo urbano y suburbano puede tener en la respuesta de una cuenca.
15. Comprender cómo y por qué puede ser necesario modificar los valores de orientación para inundaciones repentinas (FFG) en zonas urbanas.
16. Anticipar la pequeña demora temporal entre el máximo de intensidad de la lluvia y el nivel máximo de las aguas de inundación en zonas urbanas.
17. Reconocer que pueden ocurrir inundaciones repentinas aguas abajo de las cuencas que reciben las lluvias más intensas.
18. Reconocer el potencial de inundaciones repentinas provocado por la liberación súbita del agua que se halla detenida en estructuras diseñadas por el ser humano.
19. Reconocer la importancia de las comunicaciones entre distintas agencias antes y durante un evento de inundación repentina, especialmente los que implican fallos estructurales.

Estimated time to complete: 1 h

Includes audio: yes

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Last published on: 2007-10-04

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Description:
Esta breve presentación proporciona una descripción general del Curso Básico de Hidrología, e incluye: objetivo y público meta, estructura del curso y cómo adaptarlo a sus circunstancias particulares, y una breve descripción de los componentes del curso.

Objectives:
1. Describir el objetivo y público meta del Curso Básico de Hidrología de COMET.
2. Conocer la estructura del Curso Básico de Hidrología y cómo adaptarlo a sus circunstancias particulares.
3. Describir brevemente los componentes del Curso Básico de Hidrología.

Estimated time to complete: 15 min

Includes audio: yes

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Last published on: 2007-10-01

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Description:
O objetivo deste módulo é ajudá-lo a compreender os elementos do ciclo hidrológico para o uso mais eficaz das fontes de dados e ferramentas de previsão. Com o uso de ilustração, animação e interação, este módulo examina os conceitos básicos do ciclo hidrológico, incluindo a distribuição da água, água atmosférica, água da superfície, água subterrânea, neve e degelo.

Estimated time to complete: 1.5 - 2 h

Includes audio: no

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Last published on: 2008-05-28

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